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181
Ignition delay process shot by high-speed camera.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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182
Data disclosure (Bai - manuscript).
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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183
Experimental bench and corresponding facility.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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184
Three classic combustion stages of the flame.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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185
Flame binarization image processing flow.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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186
Experimental condition of fixed oil drop volume.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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187
Schematic diagram of experimental injector size.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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188
Droplet boiling modes at different temperatures.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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189
Risk Classification Diagram of Hot Surface.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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190
Physical parameters of engine lubricating oil.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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191
Variation of heat flow with wall temperature.
Published 2025“…With spray hole diameters ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.7 mm, the fractal dimensions of all droplet flames appear at around 2.6 seconds, but the values of <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> vary significantly. As the spray hole diameter (<i>S</i>) decreases, <i>D</i><sub><i>max</i></sub> approaches 2. …”
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192
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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193
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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194
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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195
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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196
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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197
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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198
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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199
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”
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200
Lubrication Behavior of Fullerene-Coated Nanoparticles on Rough Surfaces
Published 2025“…The optimal nanoparticle concentration reaches approximately 88.8% under high-load conditions, with each 3.55% increase in concentration resulting in a 0.45% reduction in structural deformation and a 0.59 nN decrease in friction. …”