(a) Inter-individual distance (m) for groups (n = 10 per condition) of five carp (<i>Cyprinus carpio</i>) during experimental trials under ambient and masked conditions; and median inter-individual distance ± median absolute deviation over time during ambient control (AMB-C: solid line) and treatment (dash-dotted line) conditions.

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• (<i>a</i>) Number of individuals within a group of five carp (<i>Cyprinus carpio</i>) exhibiting a startle response during experimental trials (n) at the onset of tonal stimuli under ambient conditions; and (<i>b</i>): number of continuous startle responses from the onset of tonal stimuli under ambient conditions, by at least one individual fish within a group of five carp: AMB-LOW (110 dB re 1 µPa), AMB-INT (121 dB re 1 µPa), and AMB-HIGH (130 dB re 1 µPa), (RMS) displayed. Note: ** indicates significance of p < 0.01; * significance of p < 0.05; and NS symbolises non-significance for Kruskal-Wallis rank sum tests ([a] χ2 = 30.88; d.f. = 3; p < 0.01 & [b] χ2 = 30.854; d.f. = 3; p < 0.01, respectively) with <i>post hoc</i> Dunn-Bonferroni tests. Note: for (b), raincloud plots show main summary statistics (i.e., boxplot with median, interquartile range, max/min), raw data (i.e., points), and kernel density estimate (i.e., shaded grey area indicating probability density function of th
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